Forensic firearm examination

Questionable forensic techniques

Some forensic techniques, believed to be scientifically sound at the time they were used, later turned out to have little (if any) scientific merit. Some of these techniques are noted below.

• Comparative bullet-lead analysis: This type of analysis was used by the FBI for over four decades, starting with the John F. Kennedy assassination in 1963. It was based on the theory that each batch of ammunition possessed a chemical makeup so distinct that a bullet could be traced back to that particular batch, or even a specific box. However, internal studies and an outside study by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences found that the technique was unreliable, and the FBI abandoned the test in 2005.
• Forensic dentistry or Forensic odontology: It involves the examination and evaluation of dental evidence, which may be presented in the interest of justice. This technique has come under fire. In at least two cases, bite-mark evidence was used to convict people of murder, but they were later freed by DNA evidence. A 1999 study by a member of the American Board of Forensic Odontology found a 63-percent rate of false identifications.

Historical developments

Since the 13th century, medical examiners have sought to determine the causes of deaths and to solve crimes. Given that a death can be natural, accidental, homicide, suicide, or undetermined, forensic science has been greatly aided by developments in modern chemistry, toxicology, and photography.

Equipped with the pioneering work of German anthropologist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach in comparative human morphology, early forensic anthropologists relied upon anthropometry (the science of recording measurements of various parts of the human body). They used such physical measurements to determine general biological traits within a human population, as well as morphological differences from population to population, including the alleged physical characteristics of races and criminals. This comparative methodology has largely been supplemented by the more exacting sciences of fingerprinting and DNA profiling for determining a positive identification.

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The publication of Austrian criminologist Hans Gross’s Handbuch für Untersuchungsrichter (1893; Criminal Investigation) helped to establish the science of forensics, especially in terms of a cross-transfer of evidence, such as dirt, fingerprints, carpet fibres, or hair, from the criminal to the victim. Early in the 20th century, serological research led to the discovery of the A, B, AB, and O blood groups, thus increasing the value of blood as evidence at a crime scene. In the mid-20th century, advances in biochemistry and technology resulted in the discovery of unique gene markers in each person; these genetic differences allow for the DNA fingerprinting of hair, blood, semen, and tissue. Thus, DNA testing was a major contribution to modern forensic science, though forensic anthropologists generally do not conduct such DNA analyses and often only supply samples to be tested. The 20th and 21st centuries have also seen substantial growth in public and private forensic laboratories, enabling the collection and study of empirical evidence.

Subfields of forensic science

Agents of the United States Army Criminal Investigation Division investigate a crime scene.

Forensic science may be divided into various subfields. A number of these are listed below.

Criminalistics: It is the application of various sciences in criminal investigations, to answer questions by examining and comparing different types of evidence, such as: biological evidence, trace evidence, impression evidence (such as fingerprints, footwear impressions, and tire tracks), controlled substances, ballistics (firearm examination), and other evidence. Typically, the pieces of evidence are processed in a crime lab.

Digital forensics: It is the application of scientific methods and techniques to recover data from digital (or electronic) media. Specialists in digital forensics work in the field as well as in the lab.

Forensic anthropology: It involves the use of physical anthropology in a legal setting, usually for the recovery and identification of skeletonized human remains.

Forensic archaeology: It involves applying a combination of archaeological techniques and forensic science, typically in law enforcement.

Forensic chemistry: It is the application of chemical analyses to reveal what chemical changes occurred during an incident, and thus to reconstruct the sequence of events that may have taken place.

Forensic entomology: It deals with the examination of insects in, on, and around human remains, to assist with determining the time or location of death. It is also possible to determine if the body was moved after death.

Forensic engineering: It is the investigation of causes of failure or malfunction of materials, products, structures, or components. The purpose is to improve the performance or life of a component, or to assist a court in determining the facts of an accident.

Forensic geology: It deals with examining trace evidence in the form of soils, minerals, and petroleum.

Forensic Interviewing: This method of communication is designed to elicit information and evidence.

Forensic meteorology: It is a site-specific analysis of past weather conditions for a point of loss.

Forensic pathology: In this subfield, the principles of medicine and pathology are applied to determine a cause of death or injury in the context of a legal inquiry.

Forensic psychology: It is the study of the mind of an individual by forensic methods. Usually, it attempts to determine the psychological circumstances behind a criminal’s behavior.

Forensic toxicology: It involves studying the effects of drugs and poisons on or in the human body.

Forensic Document Examination or Questioned Document Examination: This discipline answers questions about a disputed document using various scientific processes and methods. Many examinations involve a comparison of the questioned document, or components of the document, to a set of known standards. The most common type of examination involves handwriting, wherein the examiner tries to address concerns about potential authorship.

What is Forensic Science?

Forensic science is the combination of two different Latin words: forensis and science. The former, forensic,
relates to a discussion or examination performed in public. Because trials in the ancient world were typically held
in public, it carries a strong judicial connotation. The second, of course, is science, which is derived from the
Greek for knowledge and is today closely tied to the scientific method, a systematic way of acquiring knowledge.
Taken together, then, forensic science can be seen as the use of the scientific methods and processes in crime
solving.

Despite its ancient etymology, forensic science is anything but old-fashioned. Branches of forensic science are
rooted in almost every branch of science and many other aspects of modern society. Because of its ability to find
and present objective evidence from areas as diverse as chemistry and accounting, today it is recognized as an
essential part of the judicial system.

Essential, why essential?

Because when it comes to cases of life and death, objective evidence is crucial. While key evidence in criminal
cases may have come from witnesses or other subjective means in the past, forensic science allows for objective
evidence. That means that forensic evidence, based as it is on the scientific method, is seen as more reliable than
even eyewitness testimony. In a judicial system which maintains that the accused is innocent until proven guilty,
evidence gathered by forensic scientists is now regularly used by both the defense and the prosecution in many court
cases.

Forensic Science: A Diverse Field

While CSI may have gathered a lot of attention in recent years, if autopsies are not your thing, don’t worry: there
are a number of subspecialties in forensic science. Some of the most prominent are:

Forensic Psychology
Forensic Pathology
Forensic Odontology

Forensic Toxicology
Digital Forensics
Criminology

Because of this diversity of subspecialties available within the field, forensic scientists can be involved in
solving a crime at almost any stage in the criminal justice process. While Forensic Toxicologists, for example,
might work most closely with law enforcement or the courts after a crime has been committed, Forensic Psychologists
(commonly known as Profilers) can come into play even before a suspect has been identified in order to help prevent
future crimes.

New type of research

More recently, in practice,used forensic computer-technical expertise. Its occurrence is associated with the active implementation of information systems. This examination allows you to check the compliance of technical documents on the equipment, the integrity and suitability of devices to use. Recently, such research has become increasingly popular in the arbitration process. The subject of study is the determination of the fact of compliance or non-compliance of technical documents of the system with the norms and standards governing their development. For example, an agreement can be investigated that is concluded for processing or creating a software system, or for performing some other work with subsequent transfer to the customer of the result. If, after acceptance, the subject reveals any shortcomings, on the basis of which a civil dispute will arise, at the request of one of the parties to the relationship, computer-technical expertise may be appointed.

References

• Baden, Michael, and Marion Roach. Dead Reckoning: The New Science of Catching Killers. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. ISBN 0684867583
• Gernet, Jacques. Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250-1276. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1962. ISBN 0804707200
• Holt, Cynthia. Guide to Information Sources in the Forensic Sciences. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited, 2001. ISBN 1591582210
• Kind, Stuart, and Michael Overman. Science Against Crime. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 2001. ISBN 0385092490
• Lewis, Peter Rhys, Colin Gagg, and Ken Reynolds. Forensic Materials Engineering: Case Studies. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2004. ISBN 9780849311826
• Nickell, Joe, and John F. Fischer. Crime Science: Methods of Forensic Detection. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1999. ISBN 0813120918
• Stanton, G. «Underwater Crime Scene Investigations (UCSI), a New Paradigm.» In Diving for Science 2003: Proceedings of the American Academy of Underwater Sciences 22nd Annual Scientific Diving Symposium: March 14-15, 2003, Greenville, North Carolina, edited by S.F. Norton. Nahant, MA: American Academy of Underwater Sciences, 2003. OCLC
• Wolfson, Seth. Forensic Sculpting. Morrisville, NC: Realsculpt Press, 2005. ISBN 9781411638259

Notes

1. Forensic Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved June 29, 2008.
2. Jacques Gernet, Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250-1276 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1962, ISBN 0804707200), 170.
3. Stuart Kind and Michael Overman, Science Against Crime (New York, NY: Doubleday, 1972, ISBN 0385092490), 12-13.
4. John Solomon, FBI’s Forensic Test Full of Holes The Washington Post, 2007, Page A1. Retrieved June 30, 2008.
5. American Board of Forensic Odontology ABFO. Retrieved June 30, 2008.
6. Fermanda Santos, Evidence From Bite Marks, It Turns Out, Is Not So Elementary The New York Times, 2007. Retrieved June 30, 2008.
7. Flynn McRoberts, Bite-mark verdict faces new scrutiny Chicago Tribune, 2004. Retrieved June 30, 2008.
8. Janet Raloff, Judging Science Science News 173(3) (2008):42. Retrieved June 30, 2008.

Etymology and usage

The word «forensic» comes from the Latin adjective forensis, meaning «of or before a forum or place of assembly.» During the time of the Romans, a criminal charge meant arguing the case before a group of public individuals in the forum. Both the person accused of the crime and the accuser would give speeches presenting their side of the story. The individual with the best arguments and delivery would determine the outcome of the case. Basically, the person with the sharpest forensic skills would win. This origin is the source of the two modern uses of the word «forensic»: as a form of legal evidence and as a category of public presentation.

In modern-day usage, the term «forensics» in place of «forensic science» can be considered incorrect because the term «forensic» is effectively a synonym for «legal» or «related to courts.» However, the term is now so closely associated with the scientific field that many dictionaries include the meaning that equates «forensics» with «forensic science.»

Forensic-technical examination of documents

The need for it may appear during the proceedings of cases of any category. These include, among other things, disputes about:

• recovery of damages arising from the improper performance of obligations by one of the parties to the contract;
• assessment of the basis for the occurrence of debt, etc.

Often, persons participating inproceedings, they turn to arbitration with a statement of falsification of materials submitted by the other party as evidence. In this case, the court, according to the rules established in Article 161 of the AIC, is obliged to check the validity of such a report. The person authorized to try the dispute shall take measures defined in the legislation for this. Among them is present withforensic technical examination. It is performed to establish the methodcreation and falsification of the act, the definition of funds used for this. In addition, the examination allows to restore the contents of the damaged document, to study the material of the document. Types of research vary depending on the goal. In practice, expertise of requisites, imprints of seals / stamps, materials of documents are performed. The first allows you to determine the method and prescription of creating an act or its fragment, the fact of its change, the means used for this, to reveal invisible and poorly visible records. In the process of research expert solves diagnostic problems. Due to this, he establishes a method of making paper, the tools that were used for this. The solution of problems of identification character provides for the establishment of a text performer

Description

Forensic, construction, technical, value examination is a procedural act. It consists in carrying out studies of different subjects on behalf of an authorized person. Based on the study, the expert provides an opinion on the questions posed to him. Conducting judicial construction and technical expertise is considered as an investigative measure. This is due to the fact that it involves a cognitive process, regulated by the CCP and leading to the receipt of a specific source of evidence. As the last, in fact, the conclusion of a specialist. Information presented in the form of conclusions has a significant meaning in it. Judicial-technical expertise acts as an important procedural measure.

Forensic Document Examination

What is Forensic Document Examination?

Forensic Document Examination (FDE) is a forensic science discipline in which expert examiners evaluate documents disputed in the legal system. “Documents” may be defined broadly as being any material bearing marks, signs or symbols intended to convey a message or meaning to someone. Questioned document examinations involve a comparison of the document, or aspects of the document, to a set of known standards (i.e., authentic specimens). The goal of the forensic document examiner is to systematically evaluate the attributes and characteristics of a document in order to reveal how it was prepared or how it may have been modified.

This article is an excerpt from Practical Applications in Forensic Science, authored by Mark Songer, published by Crime Ink Publishing, LLC.

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Online Forensic Science Magazines

Digital forensic magazines collect articles for a wide audience, including scholars, law enforcement officials, and scientists who are striving to solve cases. Due to the nature of this field, readers may come across unsettling photographs and medical content depicting death.

• Forensic Magazine — This Advantage Business Media publication has a readership of over 55,000. Forensic Magazine is distributed online, in print, and as an email newsletter. This periodical serves as a news resource for academic institutions, law enforcement professionals, and forensic scientists worldwide. Articles are sorted into five main categories: crime lab, DNA, legal processes, forensic science, and crime scene.
• The Forensic Examiner — This publication is released in both print and digital formats, exploring shifts in historical cases based on forensic evidence findings. Writers revisit cases such as the JFK shooting, Jeffrey Dahmer’s diagnosis, and other high profile slayings to demonstrate how forensic science developments are shifting our interpretations of past crimes. The Forensic Examiner accepts submissions from all disciplines, so long as the content pertains to forensics professionals.
• The Forensic Teacher Magazine — This magazine provides how-tos and experiments that would be perfect for youth exploring forensic sciences. The editors have compiled educational walkthroughs on creating fake blood, setting up a crime scene, and processing investigation documents.

Forensic characterization

When addressing issues that arise whenInvestigation, the expert must have sufficient knowledge of the patterns of the mechanism of the formation of traces when committing crimes. A set of information about typical methods of preparing, carrying out acts, hiding signs of encroachments associated with fires, forms a forensic characteristic. It includes data on:

• causes of fire in the outbreak;
• conditions of flame spread and their connection with careless or intentional actions / inaction of persons;
• material traces of burning and so on.

Forensic characterization is a set of significant features on the basis of which the key tasks of the investigation can be solved.

History

The ability to compare ammunition is a direct result of the invention of rifling around the turn of the 16th century. By forcing the bullet to spin as it travels down the barrel of the weapon the bullet’s accuracy greatly increases. At the same time, the rifling leaves marks on the bullet that are indicative of that particular barrel. Prior to mass production of firearms, each barrel and bullet mold was hand made by gunsmiths making them unique. The first successful documented case of forensic firearm examination occurred in 1835 when a member of the Bow Street Runners in London matched a recovered bullet from a murder victim to a specific mold in a suspect’s home confirming that he made the bullet; this gave further evidence that the bullet maker was the perpetrator and he was convicted. As manufacturing and automation replaced hand tools, the ability to compare bullets became impossible due to the standardization of molds within a specific company. However, experts in the field postulated that there were microscopic differences on each barrel left during the manufacturing process. These differences were a result of wear on the machines and since each new weapon caused a tiny amount of wear, each barrel would be slightly different from every other barrel produced by that company. Also, each bullet fired from a specific barrel would be printed with the same marks, allowing investigators to identify the weapon that fired a specific bullet.

One of the first uses of this knowledge was in 1915 to exonerate Charles Stielow of the murder of his neighbors. Stielow was sentenced to death and appealed to Charles S. Whitman, the Governor of New York, who was not convinced by the evidence used to convict Stielow. Whitman halted the execution until an inquiry could be conducted and after further examination it was shown that Stielow’s firearm could not have fired the bullets recovered from the victims. The invention of the comparison microscope by Calvin Goddard and Phillip O. Gravelle in 1925 modernized the forensic examination of firearms. Simultaneous comparison of two different objects at the same time allowed to closely examine striations for matches and therefore make a more definitive statement as to whether or not they matched.

One of the first true tests of this new technology was in the aftermath of the Saint Valentine’s Day Massacre in 1929. During the Prohibition Era, competing gang members were fighting over bootlegging operations within the city of Chicago. Members of the Chicago Outfit and the Egan’s Rats led by Al Capone attempted to remove all competition from Chicago by eliminating the North Side Gang leader Bugs Moran. The massacre missed Moran, who was not present, but killed seven members of the North Side Gang. The murderers attempted to cover up their crime by posing as police officers, even dressing in police uniforms. Witnesses saw two «officers» leaving the scene, which implicated the Chicago police department as the perpetrators of the massacre. High levels of police corruption during that time period made it seem likely that the police department committed the killings. The investigation stalled until December 1929 when Fred Burke, a member of the Egan’s Rats, shot and killed a police officer in St. Joseph, Michigan. Officers searching for Burke were led to a home in nearby Stevensville. While Burke was not there, inside officers found an arsenal of weapons including two Thompson submachine guns. The Chicago police department was contacted and the weapons were brought back to Chicago for testing. Goddard was asked to compare the weapons to collected evidence found at the massacre using his new «ballistic-forensics» technique. After test firing the guns, Goddard proved that the weapons were those used to kill the members of the North Side Gang, absolving the Chicago police department of all involvement. The successful use of Goddard’s technique resulted in the solidification of his place as the father of forensic firearm examination.